Evaluation of Cathay Pacific

Evaluation: Employee In our case, the Cathay Pacific Flight Attendants Union (FAU) did not satisfy with a new policy that required them to work at least 70 hours a month before they could swap shifts with colleagues and they thought this new policy had hurt their pay and lifestyle. Pay and benefits is one of the factors that affect job satisfaction of the employees and it is perhaps one of the most rewards employees would like to get in order to support their lives.So when the flight attendants union alerted that their usual benefits gain from the job has changed, they immediately voiced their concern and bargained with the employer to protect their rights. Moreover, the flight attendants viewed the new decision as the company’s measure to withdraw their benefits that they are entitled to receive, which are claimed to be clearly stated in the labor contract with Cathay Pacific. They argued to the employer that this action was illegal as the company did not communicate this dec ision with them beforehand.This can be explained by the principles of justice of the employees which consists of outcome fairness, procedural justice and interactional justice. In our case, interactional justice can be applied. A perception of interactional justice is a judgment that the organization carried out its actions in a way that took the employee’s feelings into account. It includes the explanation of decision to the employees, respectful treatment, consideration and empathy. Referring to our case, the employer did not notice the employees before the implementation of the new policy which made the employees think the company did not concern their opinion.As their feelings are being ignored by the employer, the flight attendants union strongly opposed this new policy and caused conflict with the employer. Through this case, we discover that conflicts cannot be avoided in the workplace since the management goals and labor union goals are always opposite. The management aims to lower costs and raise outputs, as in our case, Cathay Pacific wanted to increase the productivity of the flight attendants and ensured every one of them should work at least 70 hours a month before they could swap shifts with colleagues.However, the labor union aims at obtaining pay and working conditions that satisfy their members and of giving members a voice in decisions that affect them, and in our case, the flight attendants bargained with the employer not to accept the new policy which harm their benefits. As some degree of conflict is inevitable between workers and management, the labor union has a significant role to represent their members’ interests and resolving conflicts with employers. When more employees join the labor union, it can boost the bargaining power of the union as it represents more employees.The Cathay Pacific Flight Attendants Union represents over 5,800 cabin crew in Cathay Pacific Airways which is a high ratio. Collective bargaining is in deed one of the ways to manage conflicts. It can be defined as a voluntary, formalized process by which employers and independent trade unions negotiate, for specified groups of employee, terms and conditions of employment. Regarding our case, the union would like to negotiate with the management at first but received no response so the union threatened to take industrial action, including a work-to-rule or a potential strike to urge the reply of the management.The pressure of an impending strike deadline forces both union and management negotiators to make concession and resolve their differences. Threatening of going on strike is usually a weapon of the labor union because it will cause a big harm to the employer and that the union can gain more attention from the management and gain a higher chance to win the negotiation. Fortunately with the intervention of the Labor Department the dispute was brought to an end with an agreement signed to withdraw the swap restriction permanentl y.The Biggest Winner was the union, which gained more than 600 new Members as a result of the ordeal. Through this case, it is obvious that the labor union gain a high importance in representing the employees and bargaining with the employer in order to get their desired results. http://www. aspireaviation. com/2010/04/05/cathay-pacific-threatened-with-strike/ http://www. thestandard. com. hk/news_detail. asp? pp_cat=11&art_id=96074&sid=27482954&con_type=1 http://www. businesstraveller. asia/asia-pacific/news/cathay-pacific-cabin-crew-mull-strike http://www. cpafau. org. hk/eng/index/

Is interactive clubbing the future of nightlife? Essay

Abstract The purpose of this study is primarily to provide a denotative definition of an Interactive Clubbing which was clearly manifested in t. The author first provided essential definitions suggested by credible sources as to the definition of the terms involved in the paper such as clubbing, interactive and then the most important concept of interactive clubbing and then provided a brief history on the origin of clubbing as to the technology being used in traditional clubbing. The methodology in this research included two sets of surveys intended managers (First set) and club goers (second set). The questions in the surveys aimed to have as a result an analysis on what are the technology involved in traditional clubs and whether such innovative installations create a positive impact to club goers and eventually to assess whether an introduction of a new concept such as that of an interactive clubbing would be appealing to frequent club goers. The respondent managers fro the first set of survey questions, came from different traditional and contemporary clubs and existent interactive club. The total number of respondents is 50 managers for the United Kingdom clubs. Most of the respondents are managers of clubs that had operated and remained successful for at least six to ten years. They were also managers in such clubs for three to four years. On the other hand, the respondent club goers for the second set of survey questions, consisted of total number of respondents is 50 club goers fro the United Kingdom. Most of the respondents are frequent club goers ranging from ages eighteen to thirty-eight years of age. In the course of this research, the author proposed an interactive club which comprised of a perfect combination of the theories in technological installation in a futuristic club which can be made possible through the proper application of such theories. Finally, the conclusion provides for an assumption regarding the concept of interactive clubbing as the future of clubbing experience. Introduction Definition of Terms Clubbing, like other ambiguous words pertains to different connotations and denotations. In order to have a concrete and working definition for the purpose of this particular research proposal, it is important to associate the word clubbing to the a certain concept identified in this research. The working definition to be used for this paper shall be associated to â€Å"Night Clubbing† which pertains the common term â€Å"Night Life† which is commonly practiced by the young citizens ranging from teen-agers until the young professionals, sometimes even the professionals under 40 years of age. Activities included with â€Å"Night Clubbing† are social dances, drinking, relaxation and other social activities. Necessary equipments present in every club is a dance floor and a bar side. Such equipments improve and enhance as the history of clubbing grows along with the innovations brought about by the evolution of technology. Moreover, nightclub is often denoted as a venue for entertainment which utilizes music, dancing and drinking as form of relaxation. Interactive is a concept that pertains to the innovational enhancement of a communication environment where in more than a party is equipped and is able to participate in a particular given activity. This definition is provided by the â€Å"Alliance of Telecommunications Industry Solutions (ATIS)†, an organization that specializes in rapidly developing and promoting technical and operations standards for the communication and related information technologies industry worldwide using a pragmatic, flexible and open approach. Combining the two concepts mentioned above would introduce a new era of clubbing apart from the traditional method of the activity as mentioned earlier. The product of the two concepts would give birth to a new concept called, the Interactive Clubbing. According to Sam Radvilla, a Video Jockey (VJ) in one of the clubs in UK, interactive clubbing is the visuals (graphics and video footage) triggered and manipulated by the motion of a dance crowd (sensors) or simply sound waves (microphone or other sound input). It is also the use of real time camera feeds with a visual set to start an optical dialogue between dance floor or audience, screen(s) and stage. Video feedback used by Video Jockeys (VJ) as a symbolic bridge between the digital and the analog world. Playing images with the same techniques and means as electronic musicians use (sampling, pitching, scratching, midi). According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Interactive can be define as the involving the actions or input of a user; especially : of, relating to, or being a two-way electronic communication system (as a telephone, cable television, or a computer) that involves a user’s orders (as for information or merchandise) or responses (as to a poll). A Disc Jockey (DJ) is the person in charge and in control of the musical scoring in a club or any social gathering entailing the need of music. The DJ has often the responsibility in keeping the music alive which also means that he has the obligation of keeping the night lively and keep the party going on till it will end. A Video Jockey (VIDOE JOCKEY (VJ)) has almost the same role as that of a Disc Jockey. The only difference is that the Disc Jockey has utilizes only audio Jockey, where as the Video Jockey comments on a video taped program or the Video Jockey does not only make use of an audio but also a video advantage that he can be seen and can interact with people in a visual manner. The innovative offer of live communication provided the possibility of a Video Jockey in Clubs. Most often than not, Video Jockey preferred in social gatherings and clubs. History The history of clubbing started from the cabarets of Europe during the early years of the 19th century and then it evolved into the bight clubs of the United State not far from the 1950’s. According to Lewis (Lewis, 1981) clubbing became popular as daring past time among urban whites, who would even travel uptown to Harlem after hours of music, food and excitement. Regine Zylberberg in her book Moi, mes histoires, 2006, gave a brief overview of the history of clubbing in the United Kingdom. The first member-only discotheque nightclub was opened at Berkeley Square London, in 1962 through the initiative of Mark Birley. This was then followed by the return of rock and roll during the 1970’s which was remixed into disco music from the French discotheque. The early clubbing according to Regine (as she is popularly called) used jukebox or mostly live bands as a source of musical entertainment. She also mentioned clubs having a dance-floor, suspended colored lights and the juke box were eventually enhanced with two turntables which are operated in order to avoid dead breaks between the music, setting into place the standard elements of the discotheque. As clubbing enters the dawn of technological innovations, additional equipments have been added to make clubbing experience become more exciting. DJ’s of the traditional early clubbing are replaced by VJ’s. The lights are enhanced to move along with the beat of the music. The sounds of music are enhanced through larger and stronger volumes of speakers that replaced jukebox. The musical scoring can be manipulated through an audio mixer that has different controls which makes the job of Jockeys easier. When computers were introduced to play a role in audio mixing, automated and readily mixed music and computer generated effects are now being used in modern night clubs all over Europe and the rest of the clubbing industry all over the globe. Issue Since the introduction of a new form of clubbing, technological issues of its probability and the nature of its existence are haunting the interactive media. The issue that this research attempts to resolve is that, whether interactive clubbing will succeed in providing full satisfaction to modern and contemporary club goers, that would make Interactive technology the future. This research would also attempt to provide a denoted definition of interactive clubbing. Relevance of the Study As an interactive media major, this research would serve as an application of all the theories and practices that I have gathered from my learning experiences. Conceptualizing a new form of clubbing through interactive installation would compel me to combine all the different media in order to come up with a multimedia operated clubbing. This research would eventually serve as the action of the theory that has been instilled in me from my years of studying interactive media. This study would benefit the alternative club goers which are looking for more exciting experiences that other interactive clubbing cannot provide. The right combination technological installations would eventually produce a seemingly perfect environment for club goers to become fully satisfied and fully equipped with an interactive clubbing. Moreover, this research would also provide opportunities for the proper utilization of technological equipments and maximizing the fruitful efforts of scientific research in media and in entertainment. Interactive clubbing would further bring clubbing experience to a higher level of satisfaction which was definitely unable to be provided by the old method of traditional clubbing.

Network Virtualization in Cloud Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Network Virtualization in Cloud - Research Paper Example The physical servers that are originally installed at the back end are incorporated for the purpose of providing original data and reference connection. The virtual system though established on the concept of virtualization and cloud computing, necessarily requires the presence of physical layer architectural support to run the system smoothly. Hypervisor comes as an essential feature of the virtual operating system. This particular function is the sole identifying and differentiating factor between the two which allows for gaining the remote presence without being identified in a cloud environment. The mechanism and process of establishing the cloud computing is similar to creating a computer system machine. It also requires installing firewalls, software applications along with the switches, hubs and other basic elements that are essential for the purpose of establishing online operations. Further dissection within the networks include options such as De militarization Zone (D-M-Z) which ensures protecting and dissecting the overall network for the purpose of reduced system damages and reduced chances of system breach. Various security measures such as Iaas also allows protecting against the migration threat and other associated features and damages that are possibly and likely to take place in the virtual networks (Franceschetti and Grossi, p. 78). Cloud computer is also based on the feature of being compatible with the different software platforms and operating system units. This enables broader operations and multiple platforms support. Cloud computing enables off site installation of online support and also enhances the availability system with minimum chances of system breaking and other considerations. Using the Iaas Service in contrast to the conventional Saas infrastructure supported function also enable the cloud computing based

Alcohol & other drug counselling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Alcohol & other drug counselling - Essay Example The book, (Tracy J Jarvis & Jenny Tebbutt & Richard P Mattick & Fiona Shand 2005, p. 88), could be a great ray of hope. The Elevation of Alcoholism The elevation of alcoholism as well as other drug abuse has encouraged many treatments to appear in the market. There are different types of drug treatment which are entirely dependent upon the seriousness of the matter. Now, each drug has its own side effects. The ill effects of the drugs like heroine and coke is immense. It is potent enough to cause hallucination therefore known as hallucinogen. Addiction to alcohol and other drugs not only triggers the health but also social and family matters. Excessive consumption of morphine, coke, heroin can also lead to death. The rate of Juvenile offenders has also increased along with crimes like rape, murders, theft and etc. Families fall apart due to this curse of alcoholism. (Cengage Education Alcohol and Other Counselling Book 1. - Theory and terminology, Sociological aspects, Effects of sub stances use, Assessment and referral, Treatment approaches, Brief intervention strategiesm 2008, p. 10)Â  provides intricate information regarding the effects on family, society and etc. Sharing needles among the users welcomes deadly diseases such as jaundice, AIDS, hepatitis and all other severe blood borne diseases (Cengage Education Handbook 19481S -Health care workers on alcohol and other drug problems 2008, p. 15). Australia is worried about the usage of cannabis as per the press reports provided by ABC News. The effects of smoking cannabis are much adverse in people from 30-50 age groups. There are many rehabilitation centers that are helping Australian by initiating drug abuse and alcohol counseling.

Marketing 100 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Marketing 100 - Research Paper Example The Cupuacu Butter is a natural moisturizer that assists in creating lustrous, radiant as well as hydrated hairs. Blue Algae has been proven to be one of the ingredients effective in strengthening the hair shaft. In addition to this wild orchids help in adding moisture to the hairs, keeps hair healthy and shiny. The product is completely eco-friendly and has been effective and suitable for all hair types. The main benefits that the users of the product receive when buying the product is that the hydrating shampoo is rich in lather that assist in cleansing the scalp as well as the hairs. It also assist in purifying, protecting and eliminating the dirt, oil as well as the styling residue that tends to damage the hair and makes the hair look dull and dry. In addition to this the users of the product can also keep their hair color longer since the color-treated hair is re-hydrated and revitalized (David Babaii for Wildaid 2011). ... The current price of David Babaii for Wildaid Hydrating shampoo is AUD $22.95 for 400 ml while the RRP of the product has been $23.50. Therefore, the customers of the product can save 2%. It has been evident that the company quite frequently offers its products at discount rate. From the name itself it has been evident that the company strives to support the beauty of the nature since it donates ten percent of all profits to the ‘Wildaid’. Wildaid is the global wildlife conservation organization (Discount Vitamin Express 2011). The close competitors of the company are Abba, Alchemy, Art of Shaving and Head Organics. It has been apparent that most of the shampoos are formulated along with certified ‘organic ingredients’ that assist in gently cleansing the hair and the scalp. The Seven Wonders have also proved to be a close competitor for David Babaii hydrating shampoo. Matrix Biolage HydraTherapie Hydrating Shampoo is also one of the close competitors of the product. It is evident that the company uses competitive pricing strategies. Consumers can easily purchase the product online and compare the prices of these shampoos with other shampoos and make their purchase related decision. Moreover, the competitors are offering the product at the same price with the same quantity which makes it difficult to set price for the David Babaii shampoo. From this it can be revealed that the prices of the product tend to remain competitive in case of greater threat of substitute products from other brands. Therefore, in light of the stiff competition faced by the company it would be better for it to keep the prices affordable for all the classes of the society. 1.3 Current Distribution

What does levinas mean when he claims that ethics is the first Essay

What does levinas mean when he claims that ethics is the first philosophy - Essay Example In light of that, it can be said that Levinas is not writing an ethics at all. Instead, he is exploring the meaning of intersubjectivity and lived immediacy in light of three themes: transcendence, existence, and the human other† (Bergo, 2007). Levinas' claim that the first philosophy is ethics, then, must be understood based off of his esoteric interpretation of the idea of ethics; nonetheless, the argument has some compelling qualities. Levinas' ethics begins with the simple, face-to-face interaction with another human being. Levinas tries to make the claim that the way that people behave when faced with each other implicitly places them in the same moral universe. At the core of Levinas's mature thought...are descriptions of the encounter with another person. That encounter evinces a particular feature: the other impacts me unlike any worldly object or force. I can constitute the other person cognitively, on the basis of vision, as an alter ego. I can see that another human being is â€Å"like me,† acts like me, appears to be the master of her conscious life. That was Edmund Husserl's basic phenomenological approach to constituting other people within a shared social universe. For Levinas, then, the fundamental reality to an interpersonal encounter is the basis for ethics. This ties in with ideas of ethics that Victorian-era scholars, Hume and Enlightenment scholars in general had about the obvious connection between empathy for others and moral behavior. (Wright, 1983, pg. 232; Parrinder, 1972; Halperin, 1974). Hume, for example, argued that empathy preceded more advanced moral judgments and was a necessary condition for those judgments: â€Å"[S]ympathy is the source of the esteem, which we pay to all the artificial virtues† (Wright, 1983, pg. 232). Hume's position is that empathy naturally guides us to behave to others morally: There is no need to tell most fathers that it is wrong to starve their children, and no need to tell people not to beat their friends randomly. It is when that empathy is stunted that pathological behavior is caused. Hume argued that the role of morality was merely to make explicit and clear the transition from obvious pri nciples derived from empathy to abstract behavior norms. Indeed, the Enlightenment in total agreed with Levinas' sentiment that it was human sympathy and interpersonal interaction that gave birth to moral behavior. Even Adam Smith, seemingly amoral in his defense of markets, actually assumed a deep empathy in human behavior, which combined with a fundamental political and economic equality that he assumed for his model

Culture unit 9 Human resources Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Culture unit 9 Human resources - Research Paper Example A health care organization must stay on top of the latest technological advances in the medical industry. New technologies can provide more income opportunities, greater productivity, and better efficiency. Quality and patient safety are two principles that must be followed by all health care organizations. Organizations in this industry that do not emphasize creating a corporate culture in which safety is top priority may face unwanted business risks such as the potential of a lawsuit for medical malpractice. Maintaining high quality standards is important towards the success of any organization. A corporate culture can help managers create a platform in which the quality versus cost debate is considered in the decision making process of the executives of the organization. Choosing quality over cost is a better long term strategy because it can increase the customer retention rate of the company. Hospitals have to make changes to their operations to adapt to the changing health care environment of the 21st century. A way to determine the needs of hospitals is by hiring a consultant to assess the business operations of a hospital. Changes in the coverage of medical plans must be closely monitored by hospitals each month. This can prevent a hospital from admitting a patient under the erroneous assumption that the medical plan will pay for the medical procedure. Another change that hospitals must pay attention too is changes in the compensation for medical professionals. Higher labor costs are forcing hospitals to adjust the fees they charge to its customers. A dysfunctional culture often occurs due to the presence of miscommunication and bad relationships among the employees of a firm (Calvert, 2009). There are different steps that companies can take to change dysfunctional cultures. The first step is to emphasize the importance of communication in the workplace. A firm suffering from a dysfunctional culture can implement a feedback system to gain insight

Organization Theory, Design and Change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

Organization Theory, Design and Change - Essay Example This would go a long way in helping the organization to determine the interorganizational strategy that would help bring the bureaucratic costs and the transaction costs to the barest minimum. The organization must also consider the location of the sources of the cost of transaction that could have an effect on the trade relationship. This would help the organization to determine the exact cost of transaction and would also help them to choose the organization actions that would help minimize the costs of these transactions (Jones 82-83). Organizations also take into consideration the several linkage mechanisms that would be used in estimating the costs of transaction before choosing the interorganizational strategies. The bureaucratic costs of running the linkage mechanism are also considered before choosing interorganizational strategies. The organization would then consider the most suitable linkage mechanism that gives the lowest bureaucratic costs and savings in the cost of transaction at the same time. These are the factors that organizations consider before choosing the interorgaanizational strategies that would help reduce bureaucratic and transaction costs (Jones

U. S. Constitution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

U. S. Constitution - Essay Example itution; â€Å"The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States, respectively, or to the people† (Tenth Amendment, 2012). In other words, state governments can make laws related to any issues which is not delegated to the federal government and prohibited to the state government. For example issues such as drink age, same sex marriages etc are issues which come under state’s jurisdiction. State governments have the authority to fix the drink age or legalize same sex marriage. On the other hand voting age is a federal matter and only the federal government will be able to raise or lower the voting age in America. Dual system in America has lot of merits as well as demerits. It is not necessary that the people in all the states may have same opinion on certain issue. The authority to make laws state-wise may help the states to formulate laws and policies based on the interests of the people. At the same time, state laws may create problems also. For example, underage drinking is prohibited in some American states whereas it is allowed in other states. In Alaska, minimum licensing age for driving is 14 whereas in Kentucky, it is 16. In other words, a teenager who is able to drive in Alaska cannot drive his car in Kentucky. In short, dual systems have its merits and

Immigration, Politics and Policy Contribution Assignment

Immigration, Politics and Policy Contribution - Assignment Example This proposal favors the Latino portion of the population who make up the highest number of immigrants from Mexico, but the government should consider many underlying factors, including the reasons for immigration and the effects on the United States’ resources. This paper will state an overview of reasons to consider when formulating an immigration policy; then propose a possible policy change and implementation plan using the fifth and sixth steps Jansson’s policy plan respectively (Jansson, 2010). According to Guyette, Tavalin and Rooker (2012), the United States has historically attempted to control illegal immigration into the country by passing restrictive policies and increasing border security. These approaches have failed if the ongoing debate for and against illegal immigrants is gouged. Data concerning illegal immigration is mostly hypothetical since transactions concerning immigrants are mostly not recorded in any official documents. For instance, Barnes (2010) in his opinion claims that it costs each native household $ 1,117, per annum to support illegal immigrants, totaling to $113 billion a year for the whole nation. The influx of illegal immigration cases can be traced to a myriad of reasons, but the main cause, in my opinion, is the government’s inefficiency in enforcing its policies on immigration. Therefore, the country needs to refrain from a complete overhaul of policies and ensure enforcement of policies to reduce illegal immigration. The country can adopt a stable policy that can be monitored and improved continuously. Any policy proposal change should ensure accounting for all the positive and negative aspects of immigration, by being fair to illegal immigrants if the merits of having them in the country outweigh the disadvantages. An effective policy should contribute positively to various aspects of the  United States society. It should be implemented and assessable.

Google Books Essay Example for Free

Google Books Essay The Google Books project has been a working progress ever since Google was created. The co-founders of Google, Sergey Brin and Larry Page had been working on a research project that was supported by the Stanford digital Library Technologies Project in 1996. Google intends to scan every book ever published and make all of the text searchable so that people can find the relevant information they need about book. They want to make books more accessible to the public and create an easy mechanism of sorting a book’s content and relevance to a subject. In 2002 a secret â€Å"books† project was launched and research was underway to identify the challenges that lay ahead of them. Over this period, Googlers discovered a quick and harm free way to scan books and began to meet with Libraries to begin the digitalization of books. In December 2004 Google announces the launch of the â€Å"Google Print† Library Project thanks to partnerships from Harvard, The University of Michigan, The New York Public Library, Oxford and Stanford. Together it is said that these libraries exceed 15million volumes. In 2005 Google Print is renamed Google Books which is a more fitting title as it better explains it’s use. With the launch of Google Books and its fast development many will argue of the advantages and disadvantages of the site. The whole project seems a little bit overly ambitious and it obviously has many flaws in its system. It is a timely process to scan hundreds of millions of books and the pivotal question here is â€Å"Are Google books doing it right? † Scanning books is an extremely time consuming process so once Google books have done it, it seems unlikely that the books will be rescanned. If some of the books are not scanned properly, important literature and information could become obscured or lost through the process of digitalization. Geoff Nunberg (2009) published an article Google books: A Metadata Train Wreck and pointed out many errors in the system. One example being that he googled the name of an author and restricted the search to the works published before their year of birth. It was found that 182 hits came up for Charles Dickens alone. The Chief Engineer for Google Books, Dan Clancy claimed that the incorrect dates where the fault of the libraries. However, when the matter was investigated further it shows that the first ten full read books published before 1812 and that mention Charles Dickens are correctly dated in the catalogues that they had come from. Although one can argue that the correct information is given on the title page, there have been some other inexcusable errors too. Google Books has classified many of its books incorrectly and once again Dan Clancy has claimed that both the libraries and publishers where to blame because the classifications were drawn from the BISAC codes that is given to booksellers. BISAC codes have only been around for about 20 years meaning that any book that was put in the wrong category before this time is a mistake of Google themselves. Google have decided to take on an extremely large project but it seems apparent that they are not doing it very well. They are quick to push the blame on others and the whole project is based more towards commercialism rather than to help make knowledge available to the world. Project Gutenberg was one of the first â€Å"digital† libraries and was created by volunteers. This project seems to focus more on the importance of literature and the quality of the books available are much greater than those on Google Books. The books are proof read by human beings and their workers are not paid which is a clear sign that they actually care about making books more available to people. Google Books produces books in a much larger mass but they should be aware that people will value â€Å"quality over quantity† most. Google quickly scan these books and it’s obvious that they rarely check them for errors. In Paul Duguid’s (2007) essay Inheritance and Loss? A Brief Survey of Google Books, He addresses the Google books system hands on by using Laurence Sterne’s The Life and Opinion of Tristram Shandy as an example. He choose the first link that appeared in the search engine and claims his results were as follows; The book he was examining did not start with the word â€Å"wish† meaning that the left hand side of the page that had the word â€Å"I† was missing. On page seventeen the left hand side of the page is not legible because the gutter of the book is blocking the first few letters and by page twenty-seven, Sterne quoted Hamlet’s phrase â€Å"alas, poor Yorick! † and inserted a black page of mourning. However the version that is on Google books has left out this page and is somewhat ignorant to the fact of how iconic it is to the astute reader. On further investigation of Duguids essay I clicked on the links that were given to the book and realised that it was no longer a link to the book. I then searched Tristram Shandy just had Duguid had done into Google Books. I clicked on the first link which is the same Harvard edition that Duguid was referencing and discovered that the first page had the word â€Å"I† before â€Å"wish† and page seventeen was now fully legible. Although some corrections had been made the black page that was to follow on from page twenty seven has still not been inserted. This is perhaps due to the fact that the people scanning these books are not scholars themselves. It is very easy to recognise a page with a missing word or one that is not fully legible but many would mistake a black page as an error in printing. Another flaw in the digitalization in books is the actual book itself. There is something so pleasant about flicking through a book and holding it in your hand while you read. The book in its own physically is magnificent, depending on how old it is it could have been passed on from generation to generation. The book itself is a story in its own right. Throughout its lifespan the book can acquire various annotations, signatures and other interesting characteristics. There has also been a lot of conflict with regard to the publishing industry and the digitalization of books. Google has offered to provide a search engine what they aspire to be every book ever published but for those which are copyrighted and cannot be viewed online, Google provides the option to purchase them online through sites such as Amazon or Barnes. In January 2007, Google held a conference on the future of the publishing industry. The conference quoted Charles Darwin and projected it on a screen: â€Å"It is not the strongest of the species that survive, nor is it the most intelligent, but the ones most responsive to change. † Toobin (2007) states in an article Google’s Moon Shot: â€Å"As Laurence Kirschbaum, a long time publishing executive who recently became a literary agent, told me at the conference, â€Å"Google is now the gatekeeper. They are reaching an audience that we as publishers and authors are not reaching. It makes perfect sense to use the specificity of a search engine as a tool for selling books. †Ã¢â‚¬  This statement has a lot of truth because since the growth of technology, the popularity of books has fallen drastically. People in the 21st century care more for mindless television shows and tacky magazines than a good well written piece. Reading books challenges the mind and fuels the imagination and by incorporating literature with technology it is a great attempt to try and revive such an excellent thing. Despite Google’s attempts, it looks as if they are not doing a good job. Many authors and publishers filed a lawsuit against Google Books claiming that Google has violated their copyrights by scanning the books, creating an electronic database and displaying short excerpts without their permission. The Authors Guild filed a lawsuit against Google Books alleging copyright infringement and after four years of discussion a settlement was finally reached in 2009. It was decided that Google was allowed to copy, display and sell millions of books that were out of print but still in copyright. However the agreement was reviewed several times and was summarily rejected in March 2011. This gave organizations a chance to voice their concern about the privacy policy for users of the system. Google claims that it has reviewed its privacy policy and that an advance policy has been created for Google Books but it seemed that the policy still left a large number of gaps and something appeared to be quite vague. On September 4th 2009 the Electronic Privacy Information Centre (EPIC) entered a motion to intervene in the Google settlement case to help the readers of Google Books regarding their privacy online. EPIC states that readers will be required to part with particular information that will be stored in a database to create detailed profiles of preferences of the reading with regard to their purchases and browsing. Marc Rotenberg appeared in court on February 18th 2010 and stated that: â€Å"A person at any library or any university in the United States that attempted to retrieve information from Google’s digital library would be uniquely tagged and tracked. There is simply no precedent for the creation of such power†. The court rejected the settlement but it did however state that Google should review it’s privacy policy to better protect its users. Google should not have the right to disclose any information to government or third parties and secure browsing should be a priority. Many people do not realise that these profiles are being created or that their privacy is being invaded. If this is supposed to be the library of the future, then it should be dealt with in the correct manner. People should be able to browse through books anonymously and have their own thoughts kept private. Google Books seem to have rushed the whole process of scanning such a vast amount of literature and by doing so they seemed to have forgotten about â€Å"quality over quantity. † It seems that the dream of creating a digital library will remain one for the foreseeable future due to the numerous flaws that the system has. Whilst Google Books are trying to correct their many errors it is apparent that the whole project was done quite carelessly and insufficiently. It is evident that Google Books motive leans more to the commercial side of things rather than making knowledge available to a wider audience. This is particularly clear with regards to their privacy policy. Google will suggest recommended pages and sites by analysing all of your browsing. The option to purchase a book that is not available online makes Google Books more of a digital bookstore rather than a digital library. The concept of Google Books is a great one and though it has some advantages, the disadvantages outweigh the good. Bibliography: †¢Duguid, Paul. Inheritance and Loss? A Brief Survey on Google Books. N. p. , Aug. 2007. Web. 12 Nov. 2012. . †¢Nunberg, Geoff. Language Log. A » Google Books: A Metadata Train Wreck. N. p. , 29 Aug. 2009. Web. 11 Nov. 2012. http://languagelog. ldc. upenn. edu/nll/? p=1701 †¢McSherry, Corynne. Good and Bad in Google Book Search Settlement Decision | Electronic Frontier Foundation. Good and Bad in Google Book Search Settlement Decision | Electronic Frontier Foundation. N. p. , 23 Mar. 2011. Web. 11 Nov. 2012. . †¢Rogers, T. Google Books: Good for Knowledge, Bad for Privacy. Information Privacy Law. N. p. , 28 Mar. 2011. Web. 12 Nov. 2012. http://www. brianrowe. org/infoprivacylaw/2011/03/28/google-books-good-for-knowledge-bad-for-privacy/ †¢Google Books. Google Books. N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Nov. 2012. .

Effect of Adolescent Cannabis Use on Brain Functions

Effect of Adolescent Cannabis Use on Brain Functions Cannabis Use During Adolescence: A Review of Impacts on Brain Functions and Associated Outcomes Recent years have seen a dramatic increase in the social acceptability of cannabis usage in the United States, with several states having already legalized recreational use of the substance and several more projected to do so within the next several years (Leyton, 2016).   Concurrently, there has been an increase in the amount of adolescents who report using cannabis, with recent data indicating that 39% of high school seniors report using cannabis within the past year and 6-7% reporting daily or near daily cannabis use (Johnston & O’Malley, 2015).   Despite increasing utilization of cannabis products for pain management and other ailments (Hwang & Clarke, 2016), some in the scientific community have expressed concern about the potential ramifications of recreational legalization of cannabis.   Chief amongst these concerns is the idea that adolescents will have very easy access to increasingly potent cannabis and synthetic cannabis products (Sobesky & Gorgens, 2016), as a great deal of research has indicated that the use of cannabis poses several risks specific to individuals in the adolescent age range (see Levine, Clemenza, Rynn, & Lieberman, 2017).   This paper will summarize the research examining the impact of cannabis use on the developing adolescent brain and potential associated outcomes, particularly in the areas of cognition/executive function, anxiety and depression, psychotic disorders, and future substance use/dependence.   The Adolescent Brain To understand the impact of cannabis use on the developing adolescent brain, it is first necessary to understand the changes taking place in the brain during this developmental period.   Not surprisingly, the period of adolescence is a time of tremendous change in the circuitry of the brain.   According to Arain et al. (2013), there is a significant amount of neuronal plasticity in the brain during adolescence, meaning the â€Å"wiring† of the brain is extremely adaptable to learning and experience.   Such plasticity, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, lends itself to difficulty thinking rationally and critically, often leading to the impulsive decision-making that is characteristic of the adolescent years.   In addition, the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis, the system responsible for regulating human responses to stress, also undergoes significant development during the period of adolescence.   Within this system, the amount and duration of adrenocorti cotropic hormone (ACTH) and glucocorticoids released in response to stress increase significantly as compared to other life periods (Romeo, 2013).   Shortly before puberty, a â€Å"surge† of synaptogenesis and neuronal growth occurs in which grey matter in the brain thickens substantially.   From this point throughout the period of adolescence, the brain is continually rewired through dendritic pruning and increased myelination of synapses, particularly in the prefrontal cortex (Arain et al., 2013; Lubman, Bonomo, & Yucel, 2007).   In addition, white matter increases are seen in the corpus callosum (Arain et al., 2013).   Taken together, these changes increase the efficiency of communication within the brain, allowing for the eventual development of more complex cognitive functioning, including improved impulse control, operational thinking, and working memory (Hart, 2007; Lubman et al., 2007).   In addition to the constant rewiring of brain circuitry that occurs during adolescence, the levels of three neurotransmitters – dopamine, serotonin, and melatonin – change during the adolescent period (Arain et al., 2013).   According to Dahl (2003), dopamine and serotonin levels decrease during adolescence, resulting in emotional dysregulation, mood disruptions, and difficulties with impulse control.   Melatonin levels, on the other hand, increase, which in turn increases the amount of sleep that adolescents need to be fully â€Å"re-charged.†Ã‚     Given the massive changes that are occurring in the brain during the period of adolescence, it is a time in which the brain is especially susceptible to the use of substances, (Lubman et al., 2007) including cannabis.   Cannabis’ Action in the Brain Before discussing the specific impacts of cannabis use on the adolescent brain, it is important to understand how cannabis acts in the brain in general.   First, the brain has an endogenous cannabinoid system (endocannabinoid system) made up of the ligands anandamide and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) and cannabinoid receptors known as CB1 and CB2 receptors (Moreira & Lutz, 2008).   CB1 receptors are located throughout the brain, but are particularly populous in the front region of the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia, the cerebellum, the hypothalamus, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the hippocampus; CB2 receptors are generally found throughout the body’s immune system (Hill et al., 2010; Iversen, 2004).   The endocannabinoid system plays a role in a number of processes, including the regulation of the HPA axis stress response (Hill et al., 2010; Lee & Gorzalka, 2015), neural plasticity, and learning and memory (Lu et al., 2008).   According to Iversen (2004), the psychoactive component in cannabis is Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).   THC, as well as increasingly popular synthetic cannabinoids, act as agonists on CB1 cannabinoid receptors in the brain.   Because CB1 receptors are generally presynaptic rather than postsynaptic, cannabinoids control the release of certain neurotransmitters, including acetylcholine, L-glutamate, ÃŽ ³-aminobutyric acid (GABA), noradrenaline (norepinephrine), dopamine, and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT).   The use of exogenous cannabinoids, such as marijuana or synthetic marijuana products, leads to an unnaturally long-lasting activation of CB1 receptors, ultimately inhibiting the release of the aforementioned neurotransmitters in selected areas of the brain (Iversen, 2004).   In addition to its impact on CB1 receptors and associated neurotransmitters, THC also appears to trigger the firing of dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area of the brain and the nucleus accumbens – areas of the brain that are heavily implicated in the brain’s reward circuit associated with drug use.   This effect is also seen with heroin, cocaine, amphetamines, and nicotine, suggesting that THC may also act on the opioid receptor system within the brain (Iversen, 2004). Impact on Cognition and Executive Function Tasks The literature has focused on several larger areas of impact regarding cannabis use during adolescence, one of these being the potential impacts on cognition and tasks of executive function.   As previously mentioned, the brain undergoes a significant amount of change in the adolescent years, including the frequent re-wiring of neural connections through neural pruning processes, particularly in the prefrontal cortex.   According to Filbey, McQueeny, DeWitt, and Mishra (2015), cannabis use during adolescence disrupts this normal pruning process through its modulation of neurotransmitters and inhibition of microglial processes.   This results in abnormal connectivity within the brain, including a decrease in white matter volume and integrity (Gruber, Dahlgren, Sagar, Gonenc, & Lukas, 2014; Jacobus et al., 2009). Such changes result in a number of cognitive impacts, including increased impulsivity, poorer reaction times, and increased errors on executive function tasks (e.g., planning, organization, self-regulation, etc.) (Becker, Wagner, Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, Spuentrup, & Daumann, 2010; Gruber et al., 2014).   Indeed, studies have indicated that individuals who begin marijuana use in early adolescence are at an increased risk for developing deficits in attention (Ehrenreich et al., 1999) and visual processing (Tapert, Granholm, Leedy, & Brown, 2002), and exhibit a decreased full scale IQ and verbal IQ in adulthood (Meier et al., 2012).   Memory also appears to be affected by adolescent-onset cannabis use (Tait, Mackinnon, & Christensen, 2011), likely via its impact on the hippocampus – a part of the brain heavily implicated in memory functions.   Animal research has shown that the hippocampus is affected by cannabis use especially during the period of adolescence.   In rats, adolescent exposure to cannabis impacted the microstructure of the hippocampus as well as abnormalities in the way that proteins are expressed in the hippocampus (Quinn et al., 2008).   Specifically, it appears that exogenous cannabinoids bind to CB1 receptors and inhibit the release of glutamate, thus contributing to deficits in short-term memory (Hart, 2007) and negatively impacting performance on memory-related tasks (see Levine et al., 2017).   Some animal studies indicate that lower levels of cannabis use (those most reflective of the actual amount that adolescents use) are not predictive of long-lasting hippocampal changes.   However, because current cannabis products are continuing to increase in potency (Levine et al., 2017), hippocampal changes and subsequent memory problems are topics of concern, especially with regard to adolescent users of cannabis.   Working memory also appears to be impacted by cannabis use, particularly in individuals that began using cannabis before the age of sixteen.   Becker et al. (2010) used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine performance on a working memory task in individuals who began using cannabis before age sixteen (early-onset) as compared to individuals who began using cannabis after the age of sixteen (later-onset).   Results of this study indicated that early-onset cannabis users exhibited increased cortical activity in the parietal lobe as compared to later-onset cannabis users.   The researchers concluded that this increased cortical activity indicated decreased cortical efficiency in response to challenging working memory-related tasks in early-onset, but not later-onset, cannabis users (Becker et al., 2010).   Such findings are consistent with a number of studies indicating that an earlier age of onset of cannabis use is associated with greater risk of negative impacts on cognitive functioning during adulthood (Ehrenreich et al., 1999; Fontes et al., 2011; Meier et al., 2012; Pope et al., 2003).   Impact on the Development of Anxiety and Depression Several studies indicate a connection between adolescent-onset cannabis use and the development of both anxiety and depressive disorders (e.g., Brook, Rosen, & Brook, 2001; Degenhardt et al., 2013; Fairman, 2015; Hayatbakhsh et al., 2007; Patton et al., 2002; van Laar, van Dorsselaer, Monshouwer, & de Graaf, 2007).   Though past researchers have speculated about the directionality of this relationship, studies have consistently indicated that adolescent-onset depression is not predictive of later cannabis use (e.g., Degenhardt, Hall, & Lynskey, 2003; Moore et al., 2007; Womack, Shaw, Weaver, & Forbes, 2016), negating the idea that depressive and/or anxiety symptoms lead to engagement in cannabis use as a method of symptom relief.   Instead, such findings promote the idea that cannabis use during adolescence, in combination with other potential risk factors, increase the risk for the development of anxiety and depressive symptoms in adulthood (Levine et al., 2017).   As with the cognitive changes discussed in the previous section of this paper, it is early-onset use of cannabis that appears to be riskiest with regard to the development of future anxiety and depressive symptoms (Hayatbakhsh et al., 2007; Patton et al., 2002).   In an interesting study by Spechler et al. (2015), fMRIs were used to examine activity in the amygdalas of adolescent users of cannabis.   The researchers showed participants images of both angry and neutral faces, a well-known test of amygdala activity and a well-regarded index of emotional processing.   Results of this study indicated that compared to the control group, adolescent cannabis users exhibited increased amygdala activity in response to the images of angry faces whereas the control group showed the same amount of amygdala activity when shown images of neutral faces.   Spechler et al. (2015) concluded that adolescent cannabis use is associated with increased hypersensitivity to negative affect.   However, in this case, the directionality of the relationship is unclear: it is possible that the sensitivity of the amygdala pre-dated the cannabis use and the cannabis use was engaged in due to its anxiolytic effect.   Conversely, it is possible that cannabis use led to increased sensitivity in the amygdala.   Either way, it appears that adolescent cannabis users are overly sensitive to negative affect and the potential threat that accompanies it, which may explain the increased incidence of depressive and anxious symptomatology in this population.    There are several potential neurobiological mechanisms explaining the relationship between adolescent cannabis use and the development of anxiety and depressive symptoms.   One possibility is the impact of exogenous cannabinoids on the HPA axis system.   The endocannabinoid system regulates the responsivity of the HPA axis, which, as previously mentioned, undergoes significant development during the adolescent years (Hill et al., 2010; Lee & Gorzalka, 2015; Romeo, 2013).   Studies with both human and rodent subjects have indicated that the use of exogenous cannabinoids during adolescence has the capacity to alter HPA axis stress responses, thus impacting emotionality and the development of anxiety-related symptoms (Lee & Gorzalka, 2015).   Lovelace et al. (2015) discuss another neurobiological mechanism that may underlie the relationship between adolescent cannabis use and the development of anxiety and depression.   In a rodent study, these researchers examined maladaptations in the prefrontal cortex due to cannabis use by looking at presynaptic plasticity at glutamatergic synapses in adolescent rats.   The results indicated that exposure to exogenous cannabinoids during adolescence led to over-activation of CB1 receptors, which led to permanent changes in synapses in the prefrontal cortex.   Overall, mice exposed to exogenous cannabinoids during adolescence showed a loss of presynaptic plasticity, which impacts the brain’s ability to adapt to changing environments and thus may contribute to an increased vulnerability of psychopathology during adulthood (Lovelace et al., 2015).   In an interesting rodent study conducted by Rubino et al. (2008), researchers found that exposure to THC during adolescence was associated with decreased density and function of CB1 receptors in the ventral tegmental area, the nucleus accumbens, and the amygdala.   These areas of the brain are implicated in emotional processing and reward and are thus implicated in the development of depressive symptomatology.   The behavior of the rats in this study also mirrored depressive symptomatology.   Specifically, rats exposed to THC during adolescence exhibited both â€Å"behavioral despair† (which the researchers defined as time the rats were immobile) and anhedonia (as measured through decreased consumption of sucrose).   Taken together, it appears that several neurobiological mechanisms are at play in the connection between adolescent cannabis use and the development of anxiety and depressive symptoms.   Impact on the Development of Psychotic Disorders A substantial body of literature has indicated a connection between the use of cannabis during adolescence and the later development of psychotic disorders (e.g., van Os et al., 2002; Henquet et al., 2005; Stefanis et al., 2004).   This is especially true for individuals who are already genetically predisposed to develop psychotic disorders (Henquet et al., 2005) though the connection has also been found in individuals that do not have this genetic predisposition (van Os et al., 2002).   As with the impact on cognition and on anxiety/depressive symptoms, it appears that early-onset cannabis use (Arseneault et al., 2002; Moore et al., 2007) as well as heavier (i.e. daily or near-daily) use pose the greatest risk for the later development of a psychotic disorder (Moore et al., 2007; van Os et al., 2002). Rubino and Parolaro (2014) discuss the possible neurobiological mechanisms behind the connection between adolescent cannabis use and the development of psychotic disorders.   In general, it appears that the use of exogenous cannabinoids during adolescence disrupts the maturational processes occurring in the brain during this time, especially in the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex – two areas of the brain that are implicated in the psychotic disorder schizophrenia, in particular.   The endocannabinoid system itself undergoes a significant amount of change during the adolescent years; thus, exogenous cannabinoid exposure during this time period has the potential to alter the long-term functionality of CB1 receptors, which then impacts the activity of several neurotransmitters implicated in psychotic symptomatology, especially dopamine (Rubino & Parolaro, 2014). Additionally, being exposed to cannabis during the adolescent period has been shown to disrupt prepulse inhib ition (the ability to accurately perceive and process stimuli) and down-regulate GABAergic activity in the prefrontal cortex – both symptoms commonly seen in individuals with schizophrenia (Morales-Muà ±oz et al., 2014; Zamberletti et al., 2014).  Ã‚   As previously mentioned, individuals who have a genetically predisposed vulnerability to develop psychotic disorders are at an especially high risk to do so if they engage in cannabis use during adolescence (Henquet et al., 2005).   For example, individuals who have a specific variant of the gene for catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), which breaks down dopamine – the neurotransmitter implicated in schizophrenia – are at a much higher risk for developing the disorder if they used cannabis during adolescence as compared to individuals who do not have that specific variant of the gene for COMT (Caspi et al., 2005).   Another gene that influences the relationship between adolescent cannabis use and psychosis is the ATK1 gene, which affects dopamine breakdown in the striatum.   According to DiForti et al. (2012), cannabis users with a certain variant of the ATK1 gene were seven times more likely to develop psychosis as compared to individuals with this gene variant w ho did not use cannabis.   Clearly, in individuals that already possess these specific genetic variants, cannabis use during adolescence can be the trigger that leads to the expression of these genes and the development of psychotic symptoms and/or disorders.   In addition, adults with psychotic disorders who used cannabis during adolescence are at a greater risk for relapse of psychotic symptoms, poorer adherence to treatment, and increased rates of hospitalization related to their diagnosis (Hunt, Bergen, & Bashir, 2002; Lewis, Tarrier, & Drake, 2005; Wade et al., 2006).   Impact on the Future Development of Substance Use Disorders   Several studies have indicated a link between adolescent cannabis use and the later development of a substance use disorder.   Again, this relationship is especially strong for individuals that engage in cannabis use in early adolescence and who engage in heavy (i.e., daily or near-daily) use (Fergusson, Boden, & Horwood, 2006; Hall & Lynskey, 2005; Stuart & Green, 2008).  Ã‚   Past researchers have speculated upon various explanations for this trend, including the so-called ‘gateway hypothesis.’   In general, the ‘gateway hypothesis’ assumes that individuals who use â€Å"harder† drugs such as heroin and cocaine almost always started their use of substances with using cannabis, and that this link is explicitly causal (Van Gundy & Rebellon, 2010).  Ã‚   This hypothesis is based on research findings indicating that the use of cannabis during adolescence often predates the use of other illicit substances, including heroin, methamphetamines, and cocaine (Fergusson et al., 2006).   Though the causality of this link has been repeatedly questioned in the literature (e.g., Morral, McCaffrey, & Paddock, 2002; Van Gundy & Rebellon, 2010), many researchers have attempted to explain the mechanisms behind the early use of cannabis and the later use of other substances and/or development of a substance use disorder.   There are countless potential psychosocial explanations for this connection (e.g., peer pressure, propensity toward risk-taking behaviors, availability of substances, etc.); however, for the purposes of this paper, the potential neurobiological mechanisms behind the connection will be discussed. The major possible neurobiological mechanism behind the connection between early cannabis use and the later development of a substance use disorder has to do with the effect of cannabis on the brain’s opioidergic system.   A great deal of animal research has indicated that the endocannabinoid system and the opioidergic system are intricately linked.   For example, Pickel, Chan, Kash, Rodriguez, and Mackie (2004) and Rodriguez, Mackie, and Pickel (2001) found that CB1 receptors and  µ opioid receptors are found on the same neurons in both the striatum and the ventral tegmental area, and Cossu et al. (2001) and Ledent et al. (1999) found that animals without CB1 receptor genes do not self-administer opioids. Drawing upon this clear connection between the endocannabinoid and opioidergic brain systems, Ellgren, Spano, and Hurd (2007) investigated the hypothesis that cannabis exposure during adolescence changes opioid-related neural functions and leads to increased likelihood of later opioid use.   Findings of this research confirmed that rats exposed to THC during the adolescent period self-administered greater amounts of heroin compared to the control group.   Moreover, findings indicated that rats exposed to THC in adolescence showed a persistent disturbance in the activity of enkephalin, which is the endogenous opioid neuropeptide associated with reward behaviors and hedonic states.   Findings also indicated that THC exposure led to changes in the functions of  µ opioid receptors such that heroin use was more reinforcing (via dopamine release) for rats exposed to THC during adolescence as compared to the control group.   Taken together, these results indicate that cannabis use during adolescence leads to a greater vulnerability to the reinforcing effects of opioids during adulthood, potentially leading to a greater risk for dependence and likelihood of relapse of substance use disorders.   Conclusion Despite the increasing popularity of cannabis use, both for medicinal and recreational purposes (Hwang & Clarke, 2016; Leyton, 2016), it is important to consider the resulting increased availability of cannabis to individuals during the sensitive period of adolescence.   Given the profound changes occurring in the brain during adolescence (Arain et al., 2013; Dahl, 2003; Hart, 2007; Lubman et al., 2007), teenagers are particularly susceptible to the influence of substances, which may lead to lasting changes in the brain’s functioning.   Such changes are associated with poor outcomes in several areas, including deficits in performance on executive function tasks (Becker et al., 2010; Ehrenreich et al., 1999; Fontes et al., 2011; Gruber et al., 2014; Meier et al., 2012; Pope et al., 2003; Tapert et al., 2002), an increased risk for the development of anxiety and/or depressive symptoms (Brook et al., 2001; Degenhardt et al., 2013; Fairman, 2015; Hayatbakhsh et al., 2007; Patt on et al., 2002; van Laar, van Dorsselaer, Monshouwer, & de Graaf, 2007), an increased risk for the development of a psychotic disorder (Arseneault et al., 2002; Caspi et al., 2005; DiForti et al., 2012; Henquet et al., 2005; Moore et al., 2007; Rubino & Parolaro, 2014; Stefanis et al., 2004; van Os et al., 2002), and an increased risk for future substance use/dependence (Fergusson et al., 2006; Hall & Lynskey, 2005; Stuart & Green, 2008).   Such considerations may have important implications for policy development related to the legalization of cannabis.   References Arain, M., Haque, M., Johal, L., Mathur, P., Nel, W., Rais, A., Sandu, R., & Sharma, S. (2013). Maturation of the adolescent brain. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 9, 13. Retrieved from http://proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/docview/1364721614?accountid=11620 Arseneault, L., Cannon, M., Poulton, R., Murray, R., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2002). Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study.  Bmj,  325(7374), 1212-1213. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C15&q=Cannabis+use+in+adolescence+and+risk+for+adult+psychosis%3A+longitudinal+prospective+study&btnG= Becker, B., Wagner, D., Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E., Spuentrup, E., & Daumann, J. (2010). The impact of early-onset cannabis use on functional brain correlates of working memory.  Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry,  34(6), 837-845. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.03.032 Brook, J. S., Rosen, Z., & Brook, D. W. (2001). The effect of early marijuana use on later anxiety and depressive symptoms.  NYS Psychologist,  13(1), 35-40. Retrieved from http://proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/docview/619826104?accountid=11620 Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Cannon, M., McClay, J., Murray, R., Harrington, H., Taylor, A., Arseneault, L., Williams, B., Braithwaite, A., Poulton, R., & Craig, I. W. (2005). Moderation of the effect of adolescent-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene: Longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction.  Biological Psychiatry,  57(10), 1117-1127. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.026 Cossu, G., Ledent, C., Fattore, L., Imperato, A., Bà ¶hme, G. A., Parmentier, M., & Fratta, W. (2001). Cannabinoid CB1 receptor knockout mice fail to self-administer morphine but not other drugs of abuse.  Behavioural brain research,  118(1), 61-65. Dahl, R. (2003). Beyond raging hormones: The tinderbox in the teenage brain. In Cerebrum: The Dana forum on brain science, 5(3), 7-22.   Retrieved from http://www.ccoso.org/sites/default/files/import/beyond-raging-hormones.pdf Degenhardt, L., Coffey, C., Romaniuk, H., Swift, W., Carlin, J. B., Hall, W. D., & Patton, G. C. (2013). The persistence of the association between adolescent cannabis use and common mental disorders into young adulthood.  Addiction,  108(1), 124-133. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.04015.x Degenhardt, L., Hall, W., & Lynskey, M. (2003). Exploring the association between cannabis use and depression.  Addiction,  98(11), 1493-1504. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00437.x Di Forti, M., Iyegbe, C., Sallis, H., Kolliakou, A., Falcone, M. A., Paparelli, A., Sirianni, M., La Cascia, C., Stilo, S. A., Marques, T. R., Handley, R., Mondelli, V., Dazzan, P., Pariante, C., David, A. S., Morgan, C., Powell, J., & Murray, R. M. (2012). Confirmation that the AKT1 (rs2494732) genotype influences the risk of psychosis in cannabis users.  Biological Psychiatry,  72(10), 811-816. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.06.020 Ehrenreich, H., Rinn, T., Kunert, H. J., Moeller, M. R., Poser, W., Schilling, L., Gigerenzer, G., & Hoehe, M. R. (1999). Specific attentional dysfunction in adults following early start of cannabis use.  Psychopharmacology,  142(3), 295-301. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002130050892 Ellgren, M., Spano, S. M., & Hurd, Y. L. (2007). Adolescent cannabis exposure alters opiate intake and opioid limbic neuronal populations in adult rats. Neuropsychopharmacology,  32(3), 607-15. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301127 Fairman, B. J. (2015).  Contributions to the epidemiology and mental health consequences of cannabis smoking  (Order No. AAI3619011). Available from PsycINFO. (1664224820; 2015-99040-239). Retrieved from http://proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/docview/1664224820?accountid=11620 Fergusson, D. M., Boden, J. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2006). Cannabis use and other illicit drug use: Testing the cannabis gateway hypothesis.  Addiction,  101(4), 556-569. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01322.x Filbey, F. M., McQueeny, T., DeWitt, S. J., & Mishra, V. (2015). Preliminary findings demonstrating latent effects of early adolescent marijuana use onset on cortical architecture. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 16-22. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1016/j.dcn.2015.10.001 Fontes, M. A., Bolla, K. I., Cunha, P. J., Almeida, P. P., Jungerman, F., Laranjeira, R. R., Bressan, R. A., & Lacerda, A. L. T. (2011). Cannabis use before age 15 and subsequent executive functioning.  The British Journal of Psychiatry,  198(6), 442-447. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1192/bjp.bp.110.077479 Gruber, S. A., Dahlgren, M. K., Sagar, K. A., Gà ¶nenà §, A., & Lukas, S. E. (2014). Worth the wait: Effects of age of onset of marijuana use on white matter and impulsivity. Psychopharmacology, 231(8), 1455-1465. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1007/s00213-013-3326-z Hall, W. D., & Lynskey, M. (2005). Is cannabis a gateway drug? testing hypotheses about the relationship between cannabis use and the use of other illicit drugs.Drug and Alcohol Review,  24(1), 39-48. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09595230500126698 Hart, H. (2007). Alcohol, drugs, and the adolescent brain.  Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology,  49(12), 883. Retrieved from http://proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/docview/195605999?accountid=11620 Hayatbakhsh, M. R., Najman, J. M., Jamrozik, K., Mamun, A. A., Alati, R., & Bor, W. (2007). Cannabis and anxiety and depression in young adults: A large prospective study.  Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,  46(3), 408-417. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1097/chi.0b013e31802dc54d Henquet, C., Krabbendam, L., Spauwen, J., Kaplan, C., Lieb, R., Wittchen, H., & Van Os, J. (2005). Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people.  BMJ: British Medical Journal,  330(7481), 11. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.38267.664086.63 Hill, M. N., Patel, S., Campolongo, P., Tasker, J. G., Wotjak, C. T., & Bains, J. S. (2010). Functional interactions between stress and the endocannabinoid system: From synaptic signaling to behavioral output.  The Journal of Neuroscience,  30(45), 14980-14986. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4283-10.2010 Hunt, G. E., Bergen, J., & Bashir, M. (2002). Medication compliance and comorbid substance abuse in schizophrenia: Impact on community survival 4 years after a relapse.  Schizophrenia Research,  54(3), 253-264. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0920-9964(01)00261-4 Hwang, J. K., & Clarke, H. (2016). Cannabis and pain: A review.  Journal of Pain Management,  9(4), 395-413. Retrieved from http://proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1949290907?accountid=11620 Iversen, L. (2004). How cannabis works in the brain. In D. Castle, & R. Murray (Eds.),  Marijuana and madness: Psychiatry and neurobiology; marijuana and madness: Psychiatry and neurobiology  (pp. 19-40, Chapter xvi, 218 Pages) Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1017/CBO9780511543630.004 Retrieved from http://proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/docview/620584373?accountid=11620\ Jacobus, J., McQueeny, T., Bava, S., Schweinsburg, B. C., Frank, L. R., Yang, T. T., & Tapert, S. F. (2009). White matter integrity in adolescents with histories of marijuana use and binge drinking.  Neurotoxicology and Teratology,  31(6), 349-355. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ntt.2009.07.006 Johnston, L. & O’Malley, P.M. (2015). Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975-2014. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health Ledent, C., Valverde, O., Cossu, G., Petitet, F., Aubert, J. F., Beslot, F., Bohme, G. A., Imperato, A., Pedrazzini, T., Roques, B. P. Vassart, G., Fratta, W., & Parmentier, M. (1999). Unresponsiveness to cannabinoids and reduced addictive effects of opiates in CB1 receptor knockout mice.  Science,  283(5400), 401-404. Lee, T. T. Y., & Gorzalka, B. B. (2015). Evidence for a role of adolescent endocannabinoid signaling in regulating HPA axis stress responsivity and emotional behavior development. In  International review of neurobiology  (Vol. 125, pp. 49-84). Academic Press.   Retrieved from https://www-sciencedirect-com.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/science/article/pii/S0074774215000987?_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_origin=gateway&_docanchor=&md5=b8429449ccfc9c30159a5f9aeaa92ffb Levine, A., Clemenza, K., Rynn, M., & Lieberman, J. (2017). Evidence for the risks and consequences of adolescent cannabis exposure.  Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,  56(3), 214-225. http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1016/j.jaac.2016.12.014 Retrieved from http://proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/docview/1875567972?accountid=11620 Lewis, S. W., Tarrier, N., & Drake, R. J. (2005). Integrating non-drug treatments in early schizophrenia.  The British Journal of Psychiatry,  187, s65-s71. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.187.48.s65 Leyton, M. (2016). Legalizing marijuana. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 41(2), 75-76. http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1503/jpn.160012 Retrieved from http://proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/docview/1819128922?accountid=11620 Lovelace, J. W., Corches, A., Vieira, P. A., Hiroto, A. S., Mackie, K., & Korzus, E. (2015). An animal model of female adolescent cannabinoid exposure elicits a long-lasting deficit in presynaptic long-term plasticity.  Neuropharmacology,  99, 242-255. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.04.034 Lu, A. T., Ogdie, M. N., Jà ¤rvelin, M., Moilanen, I. K., Loo, S. K., McCracken, J. T., McGough, J. J., Yang, M. H., Peltonen, L., Nelson, S. F., Cantor, R. M., & Smalley, S. L. (2008). Association of the cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1) with ADHD and post-traumatic stress disorder.  American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics,  147b(8), 1488-1494. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.30693 Lubman, D., Bonomo, Y., & Yucel, M. (2007).   Drug use in young people; short-term effects and long-term harms. In Gilvarry, E., & McArdle, P. (Eds.).   Alcohol, Drugs, and Young People: Clinical Approaches, Clinics in Developmental Medicine No. 172. London: Mac Keith Press, pp. 18-50.   Meier, M. H., Caspi, A., Ambler, A., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Keefe, R. S. E., MacDonald, K., Ward, A., Poulton, R., & Moffitt, T. E. (2012). Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife.  PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,  109(40), E2657-E2664. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1206820109 Moore, T. H. M., Zammit, S., Lingford-Hughes, A., Barnes, T. R. E., Jones, P. B., Burke, M., & Lewis, G. (2007). Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental heath outcomes: A systematic review.  The Lancet,  370(9584), 319-328. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61162-3 Morales-Muà ±oz, I., Jurado-Barba, R., Ponce, G., Martà ­nez-Gras, I., à ngel Jimà ©nez-Arriero, M., Moratti, S., & Rubio, G. (2014). Characterizing cannabis-induced psychosis: A study with prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex.  Psychiatry Research,  220(1-2), 535-540. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2014.08.010 Moreira, F. A., & Lutz, B. (2008). The endocannabinoid system: Emotion, learning and addiction.  Addiction Biology,  13(2), 196-212. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00104.x Morral, A. R., McCaffrey, D. F., & Paddock, S. M. (2002). Reassessing the marijuana gateway effect.  Addiction,  97(12), 1493-1504. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00280.x Patton, G. C., Coffey, C., Carlin, J. B., Degenhardt, L., Lynskey, M., & Hall, W. (2002). Cannabis use and mental health in younger people: Cohort study.  BMJ: British Medical Journal,  325(7374), 1195-1198. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1136/bmj.325.7374.1195 Pickel, V. M., Chan, J., Kash, T. L., Rodriguez, J. J., & MacKie, K. (2004). Compartment-specific localization of cannabinoid 1 (CB1) and ÃŽ ¼-opioid receptors in rat nucleus accumbens.  Neuroscience,  127(1), 101-112. Pope, H. G., Jr., Gruber, A. J., Hudson, J. I., Cohane, G., Heustis, M. A., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2003). Early-onset cannabis use and cognitive deficits: What is the nature of the association?  Drug and Alcohol Dependence,  69(3), 303-310. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1016/S0376-8716(02)00334-4 Quinn, H. R., Matsumoto, I., Callaghan, P. D., Long, L. E., Arnold, J. C., Gunasekaran, N., Thompson, M. R., Dawson, B., Mallet, P. E., Kashem, M. A., Mastuda-Matsumoto, H., Iwazaki, T., & McGregor, I. S. (2008). Adolescent rats find repeated Δ⠁ ¹-THC less aversive than adult rats but display greater residual cognitive deficits and changes in hippocampal protein expression following exposure.Neuropsychopharmacology,  33(5), 1113-1126. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301475 RodrÄ ±ÃŒ guez, J. J., Mackie, K., & Pickel, V. M. (2001). Ultrastructural localization of the CB1 cannabinoid receptor in ÃŽ ¼-opioid receptor patches of the rat caudate putamen nucleus.  Journal of Neuroscience,  21(3), 823-833 Romeo, R. D. (2013). The teenage brain: The stress response and the adolescent brain.  Current Directions in Psychological Science,  22(2), 140-145. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963721413475445 Rubino, T., & Parolaro, D. (2014). Cannabis abuse in adolescence and the risk of psychosis: A brief review of the preclinical evidence.  Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry,  52, 41-44. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.07.020 Rubino, T., Realini, N., Guidali, C., Braida, D., Capurro, V., Castiglioni, C., & Parolaro, D. (2008). Chronic Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol during adolescence provokes sex-dependent changes in the emotional profile in adult rats: behavioral and biochemical correlates.  Neuropsychopharmacology,  33(11), 2760. Sobesky, M., & Gorgens, K. (2016). Cannabis and adolescents: Exploring the substance misuse treatment provider experience in a climate of legalization. International Journal of Drug Policy, 33, 66-74. http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.02.008 Retrieved from http://proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/docview/1813639780?accountid=11620 Spechler, P. A., Orr, C. A., Chaarani, B., Kan, K., Mackey, S., Morton, A., Snowe, M. P., Hudson, K. E., Althoff, R. R., Higgins, S. T., Cattrell, A., Flor, H., Nees, F., Banaschewski, T., Bokde, A. L. W., Whelan, R., Buchel, C., Bromburg, U., Conrod, P., Frouin, V., Papadopoulous, D., Gallinat, J., Heinz, A., Walter, H., Ittermann, B., Gowland, P., Paus, T., Poustka, L., Martinot, J., Artiges, E., Smolka, M. N., Schumann, G., & Garavan, H. (2015). Cannabis use in early adolescence: Evidence of amygdala hypersensitivity to signals of threat.  Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience,  16, 63-70. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2015.08.007 Stefanis, N. C., Delespaul, P., Henquet, C., Bakoula, C., Stefanis, C. N., & Van Os, J. (2004). Early adolescent cannabis exposure and positive and negative dimensions of psychosis.  Addiction,  99(10), 1333-1341. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00806.x Stuart, E. A., & Green, K. M. (2008). Using full matching to estimate causal effects in nonexperimental studies: Examining the relationship between adolescent marijuana use and adult outcomes.  Developmental Psychology,  44(2), 395-406. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.2.395 Tait, R. J., Mackinnon, A., & Christensen, H. (2011). Cannabis use and cognitive function: 8†year trajectory in a young adult cohort.  Addiction,  106(12), 2195-2203. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03574.x Tapert, S. F., Granholm, E., Leedy, N. G., & Brown, S. A. (2002). Substance use and withdrawal: Neuropsychological functioning over 8 years in youth.  Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society,  8(7), 873-883. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355617702870011 Van Gundy, K., & Rebellon, C. J. (2010). A life-course perspective on the gateway hypothesis.  Journal of Health and Social Behavior,  51(3), 244-59. Retrieved from http://proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/755695027?accountid=11620 van Laar, M., van Dorsselaer, S., Monshouwer, K., & de Graaf, R. (2007). Does cannabis use predict the first incidence of mood and anxiety disorders in the adult population?  Addiction,  102(8), 1251-1260. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.01875.x Van Os, J., Bak, M., Hanssen, M., Bijl, R. V., De Graaf, R., & Verdoux, H. (2002). Cannabis use and psychosis: a longitudinal population-based study.  American journal of epidemiology,  156(4), 319-327.   doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwf043 Wade, D., Harrigan, S., Edwards, J., Burgess, P. M., Whelan, G., & McGorry, P. D. (2006). Course of substance misuse and daily tobacco use in first-episode psychosis.  Schizophrenia Research,  81(2-3), 145-150. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2005.09.010 Womack, S. R., Shaw, D. S., Weaver, C. M., & Forbes, E. E. (2016). Bidirectional associations between cannabis use and depressive symptoms from adolescence through early adulthood among at-risk young men.  Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs,  77(2), 287-297. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.15288/jsad.2016.77.287 Zamberletti, E., Beggiato, S., Steardo Jr, L., Prini, P., Antonelli, T., Ferraro, L., Rubino, T., & Parolaro, D. (2014). Alterations of prefrontal cortex GABAergic transmission in the complex psychotic-like phenotype induced by adolescent delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure in rats.  Neurobiology of disease,  63, 35-47.

The Construction Quality Assessment System Construction Essay

The Construction Quality Assessment System Construction Essay CONQUAS stands for Construction Quality Assessment System. Construction Industry Development Board Singapore now known as the Building and Construction Authority have developed it for the major public sector agencies and the various leading industry professional bodies to measure the quality level of completed project (The National House Buyers Association (HBA), 2009). The Building and Construction Authority (BCA) is an agency under the Singapores Ministry of National Development. The BCA is championing the development of an excellent built environment for Singapore. Built environment refers to buildings, structures and infrastructure in our surroundings that provide the setting for the communitys activities. (Building and Construction Authority, 2006) At the beginning, the CONQUAS was introduced only to the local construction industry. CONQUAS have been launched since 1989 (Building and Construction Authority, 2006). Today, CONQUAS is widely recognized and also accepted internationally as a benchmarking tool for quality. CONQUAS is now a registered trademark. CONQUAS have adapted in Singapore, Malaysia, China, Hong Kong, United Kingdom, Australia, South Africa and India, UK and Hong Kong construction industries (Building and Construction Authority, 2006). The aim of CONQUAS was introduced to have a standard quality assessment system for construction projects. Furthermore, CONQUAS is to enable quality assessment to be carried out systematically within reasonable cost and time. Besides, CONQUAS is used to measure quality of constructed works against workmanship standards and specification (Building and Construction Industry, 2005). However, CONQUAS is an independent assessment. It is carried out by assessors from BCA Singapore. It was designed to gauge and benchmark the quality of workmanship through the sampling approach. On the other hand, it means not every unit will be inspected or evaluated by the assessor. Random samples will be pre-selected and inspected to represent the quality of the whole project (The National House Buyers Association (HBA), 2009). Since the launch of CONQUAS in 1989, more than 2,238 public and private building projects have been assessed by BCA. The total cumulative contract value of the assessed projects exceeds 81.9billion Singapore dollar (Building and Construction Authority, 2006). In 1998, BCA introduced a number of new features to CONQUAS resulting in the launch of CONQUAS 21 (Building and Construction Authority, 2006). Now, Malaysia is applying CONQUAS 21 into the building projects. Problem Statement The standard quality of the building product becomes the significant issue that is always discussed and disputed by the contractors, developers, and investors or house buyers. Quality assessment of the building before the developer vacant possession to the purchaser is the significant issue for the developer. The developer shall delivery the final building product to the purchaser which the building is achieved a standard quality. However, how many will ask: How should I ensure the quality of the product (property) that I purchased is fairly justified with the amount of money that I paid? Many of the investors and the house buyer are sacrificing a huge money to appoint a famous Feng Shui master, to conduct a property surveys and engaged property agent prior making decision to invest the property. Has the quality standard of the building product been assured and same as the show unit? (The National House Buyers Association (HBA), 2009). There are many developers intended to deliver the final product to the end user with free of defects and good in quality. Thus, to achieve the standard quality of the building production, the contractor can adopt the Construction Quality Assessment (CONQUAS 21) in the project to give the quality assurance workmanship of building product. Although, the CONQUAS 21 is applied in construction industry, however, it is brought any benefits to the contractors, developers and end users? Moreover, what are the impact of the CONQUAS 21 toward the contractors, developers and end user? Consequently, the researcher will carry out the research regarding the application of quality assessment system (CONQUAS 21) in construction industry. Aims Objectives Aims To investigate Quality Assessment System (CONQUAS 21) in construction industry. Objectives To study the principle and concept of CONQUAS 21 To find out problems occur when applying the CONQUAS 21 To find out the advantages of using CONQUAS 21 Scope of study The research will provide a detail description on the standard of CONQUAS 21 and procedures of the system. This is done through literature review on journal papers, conference papers, books and browsing through websites. Besides that, the researcher aims to the population of local contractors and developers who are adopted CONQUAS 21 in the construction projects. Researcher will investigate the reason of implementing the CONQUAS 21 in construction industry. Moreover, research will in-deep investigate regard the impacts and advantages of CONQUAS 21. Basically, a case study will be conducted to obtain more information regarding the implementation of CONQUAS 21. Research Methodologies Literature Research Cover journals, relevant textbook, and internet research and conference paper is the sources that I obtain my information and doing for my literature research. Interview Site agent, supervisor and the site manager will be interviewed by the researched to get more details about the CONQUAS 21. The interview is hold at Swiss Garden Residences site. Case Study Site visit to the Swiss Garden Residence would be the best way to figure out the effectiveness of CONQUAS 21. Besides that, it is to figure out the problems occur when applying the CONQUAS 21. Chapter Outline Chapter 1: Introduction In this chapter, the researcher is going to slightly introduce the background of CONQUAS. Besides that, the researcher is going to talk about the aims and objectives for this research. Chapter 2: Literature Review In this chapter, the researcher is going to discuss the concept and principle of CONQUAS 21. The information regarding the CONQUAS 21 are obtained from the literatures from books, articles, journals and web site. Moreover, the researcher is going to comment on the advantages of CONQUAS 21 and the impact of applying the CONQUAS 21. Chapter 3: Designing the case study and research methodology The researcher is going to use Swiss Garden Residences as the case study for CONQUAS 21. The researcher is going to interview the project manager, site manager and site agent for obtaining the relevant information. Chapter 4: Analysis of the secondary data After collecting the information, the researcher is going to do the analysis for the information obtained. The researcher is going to argue on the information obtained and give some opinion regarding the CONQUAS 21. Chapter 5: Conclusion and further studies In this chapter, the researcher is going to make a conclusion for the whole research and state out the further studies for quality assessment. Plan and Schedule Planned Schedule 2009/2010 2010/2011 Second Semester First Semester Second Semester Nov Dec May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Introduction Literature Review Designing case study Analysis Conclusion Actual Schedule 2009/2010 2010/2011 Second Semester First Semester Second Semester Nov Dec May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Introduction Literature Review Designing case study Analysis Conclusion Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Quality Philosophy Definition of Quality Different party defines the quality in different way. Some people will define it as to meet contract requirements, instead some people define it as the satisfaction of customer and others also define as it reaches the required standards. Totality of characteristics of an entity that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs is the definition that The National Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines quality (Chung, 1999). The aims or requirements have been fulfilled or reached by any party, mean the quality standard has been achieved. Furthermore, quality also can be defined based on own opinion such as providing customers with products and services that consistently meet their needs and expectations (S.L. Tang, 2005), performance to the standard expected by the customer (S.L. Tang, 2005) and fitness for purpose (Chung, 1999). However, the definiton of quality is based on how a party to define, it can be defined is several way. Basic Concept of Quality Quality is the most important factor to be concerned in every field including construction field. In order to achieved the quality, the industries have come out with there are assessment system and guidelines to be carried out to ensure the works done in the construction industry can achieve the quality. ISO 9001:2000, Quality Assessment System in Construction (QLASSIC) and Construction Quality Assessment (CONQUAS) is the assessment system that always used by constrction industry to ensure the works done reach the quality standard requirement. Case study of CONQUAS will be carried out in more details later. Quality can be quantified as follows:- Q=P/E Where, Q = quality P = performance E = expectation If Q is greater than 1.0, then the customer has a good feeling about the products or services (Besterfield, 1998). Furthermore, There are nine dimensions in the quality. All dimensions are independent, which means that an end product can be excellent in one dimension but poor in others (Besterfield, 1998). These nine dimensions details and their terms is the following:- Table 1: Nine dimensions of quality and their terms Dimension Terms Performances Primary products/service characteristic such as time, cost and workmanship aspect. Features Secondary characteristic, added consideration such as creativity in design and attractivenes. Conformance Meeting specification or industry standards, workmanship and clients requirement in contract. Reliability Consistency of performance over time, average time for the unit to fail. Durability Useful life period with less maintenance or repair. Service Resolution of problems and complaints, ease of repair. Response Human to human interface such as efficiency during meeting, fast decision making, effective human resources management. Aesthetics Sensory characteristics in design such as exterior finishes. Reputaion Past performance such as being ranked first in the tendering process. Adapted from Garvin, 1988, Managing Quality: The strategic and Competitive Edge, New York: Free Press. Furthermore, there are always the relationship between quality with cost, value, cycle time and productivity. The details of the relationship is shown as following:- Quality and Productivity Productivity increase will influence the quality by improvement Productivity = Salcable output / Resources used Quality and Costs Cost will increase if the quality of conformance increase Cost will increase if the quality of design increase Quality and Cycle Time The cycle time will be reduce if there is improvement of quality effort The cycle time to complete the activities is the key parameter Quality and Value Organizations must evalute the value they provide, relative to the competition Value = Quality / Price (S.L. Tang, 2005) 2.1.3 Quality Management Quality management will influence the quality directly. The principles of quality management are applicable to every industry, within all organisations and at every level (McCabe, 1988). The basic goal of quality management is the elimination of failure: both in the concept and reality of products, services and processes (Juran, 1989). The quality management is defined as all activities of the overall management function that determine the quality policy, objectives and responsibilities, and implement them by means such as quality planning, quality control, quality assurance, and quality improvement within the quality system (McCabe, 1988) The quality management have four stages in evolution, known as: Quality Inspection, Quality Control (QC), Quality Assurance (QA) and Total Quality Management (TQM) (UTM, 2003). Inspection and Quality Control are retrospective; their aim is find out the occurred problem by detection mode. Instead, the aim of Quality Assurance and Total Quality Management is reduce and to avoid problems occuring (McCabe, 1988). The characteristic of the different stages in Quality Management as shown following:- Figure 1: The four stages of quality management TQM QA QC Inspection Adapted from Dale, Boaden and Lescelles 1994: Levels of total quality management adoption Figure 2: The four stages of quality management Quality Assurance Quality systems development Advanced quality planning Comprehensive quality manuals Use of quality costs Involvement of non-production operations Failure mode Total Quality Management Policy deployment Involve suppliers and customers Involve all operations Process management Performance management Teamwork Employee involvement Quality Control Develop quality manual Process performance data Self-inspection Product testing Basic quality planning Use of basic statistics Paperwork controls Inspection Salvage Sorting, grading, relending Corrective actions Identify sources of non-conformance Adapted from Steven McCabe 1988: Quality Improvement Techniques in Construction Stage 1 : Inspection The first stage of quality management is inspection. The inspection is defined as activity such as measuring, examining, testing or gauging one or more characteristics of an entity and comparing these results with specified requirements in order to establish whether conformity is achieved for each characteristic (McCabe, 1988). Inspection is used by most of the construction industry to ensure the conformance. The site supervisor will carried out the inspection of the construction project. The supervisor will make the comparison the architectural works and structural based on the specification and drawing. If there is any defective works found by the customers, the contractor need to rectify the defective works until fulfill the customers requirement. Stage 2 : Quality Control (QC) Quality control will be carried out after the inspection done. Quality control is considered as a system of routine technical activities, to measure and control the quality of the inventory as it is being developed (Mangino, 1996). The procedure of Quality control is very complicated. QC mostly is based on the statistical analysis. Collection of data is required in QC to maintain the quality by statistical techniques. Stage 3 : Quality Assurance Quality assurance is defined as all the planned activities implemented within the quality system, and demonstrated as needed, to provide adequate confidence that an entity will fulfill requirements for quality (McCabe, 1988). The objective of Quality Assurance (QA) is to provide adequate confidence that a service or product will fulfill customers requirement by performing system audit, Failure Mode and Effect Analysis, design of experiment and similar initiatives (UTM, 2003). In other words, QA is more specified on planning. The prevention of poor quality and defects is based on detection activities. Stage 4 : Total Quality Management The final stage of quality management is Total Quality Management. The implementation and understanding of quality management principles and concepts in every aspect of business activities are involved in this stage. The best service or product will be provided to the customer at the lower cost by using these activities. However, TQM is less formal; having either procedures or system, and it is hard to be described due to it is less in formality (McCabe, 1988). Normally, only guidance will be provided by TQM and it consider as a philosophy. Concept and Principles of CONQUAS 21 2.2.1 Introduction Recently, the requirement of customers towards the building that they purchase is quality. They wish to get the best quality of the purchase building as possible. In this condition, the developers have to play an important role to ensure the quality of the building project. The developers overcome the problem by using Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC) into the construction project to maintain the standard of quality as the requirement. CONQUAS 21, ISO 9001:2000, QLASSIC will become the choice for the developers for their assessment system. Case study about CONQUAS 21 will be carried out by the researcher in more details. 2.2.2 Objectives of CONQUAS 21 There are three objectives in the CONQUAS 21 system: Act as a standard quality assessment system in construction projects. Inspecting quality assessment by: Measuring the specification and standard of the workmanship in the works done Randomly selecting the sample as represent the whole project To enable quality assessment systematically take place within reasonable cost and time (Building and Construction Authority (BCA), 2006) Scope of CONQUAS 21 In CONQUAS 21 system, all the works done will be given points based on the quality standard. All of the given points will be added together to get the total quality score which also known as CONQUAS score for the construction project (Building and Construction Authority (BCA), 2006). The quality workmanship is better, the higher of CONQUAS score will be obtained. 100% is the maximum CONQUAS score in construction project, but our human being is unable to construct a work with zero-defects. The general building works is covered by CONQUAS 21 system. There are 3 components in the assessment: Structural Works Architectural Works and Mechanical Electrical (ME) Works There are different item to be assessed in the different component stated above (Building and Construction Authority , 2005). CONQUAS 21 is considered as first time right inspection approach (Building and Construction Authority , 2005) means that the rectification works will not take into consideration in CONQUAS 21 score for the assessment. Furthermore, sampling system is the assessment system used in the CONQUAS. The assessor will choose the unit according to the average, 1-in-4 apartment units in a residential development for the assessment (Building and Construction Authority , 2005). Thus, which unit will be chosen is unknown so the contractors have to ensure all of the constructed works are in good quality condition. If there is any defective found, the works will be considered as failed. Besides, the heavily equipment-base such as heavy foundation, sub-structure works and piling is not available for assessment and the work separate contracts or sub-contracts are not included in the assessment (Building and Construction Authority (BCA), 2006). The inspection is different with the inspection done by the site supervisor. Normally, the contractors have to purposely do an arrangement for the inspection which form a specific team for the inspection. There is a guideline have to be followed for the assessment. Components to be assessed Structural Works, Architectural Works and ME Works are the components under CONQUAS 21 assessment. Structural Works Structural Works can be considered as body for a building, the stability of the building will be affected if there is failure or defect in structural works. Thus, maintain its quality is necessary due to the cost of rectification is very expensive. Below show the details of the assessment of Structural Works:- Inspection of finished concrete, formwork and steel reinforcement have to be carried out on site during the construction site. If any component constitutes exceed 20% of the total structural cost, the pre-stressed concrete and structural steel are included in the assessment. If found the precast concrete volume more than 20% of structural concrete volume, the precast elements have to be assessed. Tensile strength of steel reinforcement and testing of compressive strength of concrete will be carried out on laboratory testing. Non-destructive testing of the uniformity and the cover of hardened concrete. (Building and Construction Authority (BCA), 2006) Appendix 1 shows the quality standards of Structural Works. Architectural Works The components and finishes are classified in Architectural Works. The workmanship and quality can be easily seen and found. Below are the details of assessment of Architectural Works:- After the building have complete, the assessment have to be carried out on roofs, external works, external walls and internal finishes. All the assessment have to be carried out on site. Internal walls, doors, components, windows and floors are classified under the internal finishes. Functional and material tests such as on external walls and adhesion of internal wall tiles and water-tightness of window. (Building and Construction Authority (BCA), 2006) Appendix 2 shows Architectural Works quality standard. Mechanical Electrical (ME) Works The progress of whole building will be influenced by ME Works. Air conditioning Mechanical Ventilation Works (ACMV), Electrical works, the basis ME fittings and Fire Protection Works are classified under the progress of the building. Below are the stage of assessment:- Concealed pipes, ACMV ductworks and electrical conduits are classified as installed works, the inspection on the item have to be carried out before embedded on site. The cooling tower, fire alarm control panel and Air-Handling Unit (AHU) are the final installed works which the assessment have to be carried out on site. Dry Riser Test, Earthing Test and Water Pressure Test are considered as selected works. The performance tests are carried out on them. (Building and Construction Authority (BCA), 2006) Appendix 3 show the quality standard of ME Works. The Weightages CAT A (Commercial, Industrial, Institution and Others), CAT B (Condominium, Institution and Others), CAT C (Public housing), and CAT D (Landed properties) are the four categories of building that distribute the weightages for ME Works, Architectural Works and Structural Works in CONQUAS 21 system. The objective of weightage system is making the quality of a building is based on the CONQUAS score, it is a compromise between the cost proportions of the three components in the various buildings and their aesthetic consideration (Building and Construction Authority (BCA), 2006). In general, ME works consist 10% for four categories of building in average, 35% is consisted by the Structural works and the highest percentage is consisted by Architectural works which 50% in average for the four categories of buildings. The quality of Architect works is the most important with the highest percentage, second is represented by the Structural works and ME works is the lowest. Table 2: The Weightages in CONQUAS 21 Components CAT A Commercial, Industrial, Institution Others CAT B Commercial, Industrial, Institution Others CAT C Public Housing CAT D Landed Properties Structural Works 30% 35% 45% 40% Architectural Works 50% 55% 50% 55% ME Works 20% 10% 5% 5% CONQUAS Score 100% 100% 100% 100% Note: In general, projects with central cooling system having cooling tower, chiller system, etc are classified under CAT A. Otherwise, it will be classified under CAT B. Appendix 5 provides a guides with listing of building under the various categories. Adapted from Building and Construction Authority (BCA): CONQUAS 21 manual book CONQUAS Assessor In CONQUAS 21 system, only the Building and Construction Authority (BCA) officer can be the assessor to inspect the works done of the project. BCA will conduct a calibration program and training for assessors to attend to ensure competency and consistency in the assessment (Building and Construction Authority, 2006). Furthermore, CONQUAS 21 system is consider as independent assessment. Therefore, if the building or parts of the building project are acceptable, the architects and engineers are not allowed to use CONQUAS to make any decision unless the building contract specify it (Building and Construction Authority (BCA), 2006). Sampling Sampling system is introduced in the CONQUAS 21 system for the assessment. It is impossible for us to inspect every unit of the works done. Thus, the sampling system is used for the assessment, it helps the accessor a lot by saving the time and make the assessment easier due to the samples will be randomly chosen by the assessor for inspection. Furthermore, the sampling system want to make sure the inspection is sufficient to represent the whole building by referring to the gross floor area of the building. The assessment of CONQUAS 21 Assessment approach Sampling system is used by the CONQUAS 21 as the assessment system, the sample will be randomly selected for the quality assessment according to the location plan and drawing plan and it will be distributed based on the construction stages (Building and Construction Authority (BCA), 2006). The scoring will be done on the works that are inspected for the first time because the objective of this practice is to encourage contractors doing things right the first time is the principle of the CONQUAS 21 system which want to make sure all the contractor do the works well and maintain the quality in first time. Thus, the scoring will not take into account for the rectification works, only the first time works done will be inspected and scored in the CONQUAS 21 system (Building and Construction Authority (BCA), 2006). In filling the assessment form, X mean the work done do not fulfill the CONQUAS quality standard after inspection on it. Instead, consider the inspected work have reached the quality standard stated in the CONQUAS system. Besides, not applicable item will be noted as - in the assessment form. The number of over the total number of item assessed is the final score of CONQUAS for the whole project. Structural works assessment After the whole projects have been completed, the inspection on structural works only can be done. Wall, slab, beam and column can be classified as the Structural works. Below show the details of the assessment of a reinforced concrete structure:- Table 3: The assessment of a reinforced concrete structure Reinforced Concrete Structure Weightage % Formwork 15 Rebar 20 Finished Concrete 25 Concrete Quality 5 Steel Reinforcement Quality 5 NDT UPV test for concrete uniformity 15 NDT Electro-Cover meter test for concrete cover 15 Total 100 *If total precast concrete volume exceeds 20% of total structural concrete volume, assessment will be carried out for precast concrete construction. The points will be distributed proportionately between formwork/rebar assessment and precast concrete assessment based on the respective concrete volume percentage. Adapted from Building and Construction Authority: CONQUAS 21 manual book The structural works assessment is carried out by using sampling system which mean only part of the samples have been chosen to represent whole project for the assessment, not every unit is inspected. Thus, there are some guidelines for the assessment of structural works. The guidelines are shown as below:- Table 4: Guidelines for Structural works assessment Items GFA per Sample Min Sample Max Sample Remarks 1 Structural Elements 500 m2 30 150 For Non-Housing Project 1a Strctural Elements 1500 m2 30 50 For Housing Project 2 Concrete Compressive Strength 100% Declaration by Qualified Person 3 Steel reinforcement Tensile Strength 100% Declaration by Qualified Person 4 NDT UPV test for concrete uniformity 5,000 m2 2 sets 20 sets 5 structure members per set 5 NDT Electro-Cover meter test for concrete cover 5,000 m2 2 sets 20 sets 5 structure members per set Note: The computed number of elements to be checked must be evenly distributed throughout the entire block and cover at least 50% of floors in a block. They should also as far as possible cover the different types of structural elements. Adapted from Building and Construction Authority: CONQUAS 21 manual book The inspection is only site inspection, the inspection cannot be done at precast yard due to all the structure works to be inspected is cast in-situ concrete works, not the precast component. The inspection of the structural works is according to compliance to the standards (see in the Appendix 1, 1a, 1b 1c). The further assessment will be required if the structural steelwork in the structural works exceed 20% of the structural cost and the points will be distributed proportionately. The Pre-stressing Works is similar with the str